This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed.
The molecules listed below were detected by spectroscopy. Their spectral features are generated by transitions of component electrons between different energy levels, or by rotational or vibrational spectra. Detection usually occurs in radio, microwave, or infrared portions of the spectrum.[1] The first such molecule to be detected in the interstellar medium was the methylidyne radical (CH) in 1937.[2]
Interstellar molecules are formed by chemical reactions within very sparse interstellar or circumstellar clouds of dust and gas. Usually this occurs when a molecule becomes ionized, often as the result of an interaction with a cosmic ray. This positively-charged molecule then draws in a nearby reactant by electrostatic attraction of the neutral molecule's electrons. Molecules can also be generated by reactions between neutral atoms and molecules, although this process is generally slower.[1]
A particularly large and rich region for detecting interstellar molecules is Sagittarius B2 (Sgr B2). This giant molecular cloud lies near the center of the Milky Way galaxy and is a frequent target for new searches. About half of the molecules listed below were first found near Sgr B2, and nearly every other molecule has since been detected in this feature.[3]
Molecules
The following tables list molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium, grouped by the number of component atoms. If there is no entry in the Molecule column, only the ionized form has been detected. For molecules where no designation was given in the scientific literature, that field is left empty.
^ ab Nummelin, Albert (2006-07-13). Observations of interstellar molecules. Chalmers University of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ Woon, D. E. (May, 2005). Methylidyne radical. The Astrochemist. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ S. E. Cummins, R. A. Linke, P. Thaddeus (1986). "A survey of the millimeter-wave spectrum of Sagittarius B2". Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series60: 819-878. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ The Structure of Molecular Cloud Cores. Centre for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, University of Kent. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalam Ziurys, Lucy M. (2006). "The chemistry in circumstellar envelopes of evolved stars: Following the origin of the elements to the origin of life". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences103 (33): 12274-12279.
^ abc J. Cernicharo, M. Guelin (1987). "Metals in IRC+10216 - Detection of NaCl, AlCl, and KCl, and tentative detection of AlF". Astronomy and Astrophysics183 (1): L10-L12.
^ L. M. Ziurys, A. J. Apponi, T. G. Phillips (1994). "Exotic fluoride molecules in IRC +10216: Confirmation of AlF and searches for MgF and CaF". Astrophysical Journal433 (2): 729-732.
^ D. L. Lambert, Y. Sheffer, S. R. Federman (1995). "Hubble Space Telescope observations of C2 molecules in diffuse interstellar clouds". Astrophysical Journal438: 740-749.
^ abc G. A. Galazutdinov, F. A. Musaev, J. Krelowski (2001). "On the detection of the linear C5 molecule in the interstellar medium". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society325: 1332-1334. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ D. A. Neufeld, P. Schilke, K. M. Menten, M. G. Wolfire, J. H. Black, F. Schuller, H. S. P. Müller, S. Thorwirth, R. Güsten, S. Philipp (2006). "Discovery of interstellar CF+". Astronomy and Astrophysics454 (2): L37-L40. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ ab Adams, Walter S. (1941). "Some Results with the COUDÉ Spectrograph of the Mount Wilson Observatory". Astrophysical Journal93: 11-23. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ abcdef Smith, D. (1988). "Formation and Destruction of Molecular Ions in Interstellar Clouds". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London324 (1578): 257-273. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ abcdefg A. Fuente, S. García-Burillo, M. Gerin, D. Teyssier, A. Usero, J. R. Rizzo, P. de Vicente (2005). "Photon-dominated Chemistry in the Nucleus of M82: Widespread HOC+ Emission in the Inner 650 Parsec Disk". Astrophysical Journal619 (2): L155-L158.
^ ab M. Guelin, J. Cernicharo, G. Paubert, B. E. Turner (1990). "Free CP in IRC + 10216". Astronomy and Astrophysics230: L9-L11.
^ W. B. Latter, C. K. Walker, P. R. Maloney (1993). "Detection of the Carbon Monoxide Ion (CO +) in the Interstellar Medium and a Planetary Nebula". Astrophysical Journal Letters419: L97.
^ R. S. Furuya, C. M. Walmsley, K. Nakanishi, P. Schilke, R. Bachiller (2003). "Interferometric observations of FeO towards Sagittarius B2". Astronomy and Astrophysics409: L21-L24. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ Adams, Walter S. (1970). "Rocket Observation of Interstellar Molecular Hydrogen". Astrophysical Journal161: L81-L85. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ G. A. Blake, J. Keene, T. G. Phillips (1985). "Chlorine in dense interstellar clouds - The abundance of HCl in OMC-1". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1295: 501-506. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ D. A. Neufeld, J. Zmuidzinas, P. Schilke, T. G. Phillips (1997). "Discovery of Interstellar Hydrogen Fluoride". Astrophysical Journal488 (2): L141–L144.
^ D. M. Meyer, K. C. Roth (1991). "Discovery of interstellar NH". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters376: L49-L52. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ "Astronomers Detect Molecular Nitrogen Outside our Solar System for the First Time", Goddard Space Flight Center, June 9, 2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-20.
^ D. McGonagle, W. M. Irvine, Y. C. Minh, L. M. Ziurys (1990). "Detection of nitric oxide in the dark cloud L134N". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1359: 121-124. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ Staff writers. "Elusive oxygen molecule finally discovered in interstellar space", Physorg.com, March 27, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-04-02.
^ L. M. Ziurys (1987). "Detection of interstellar PN - The first phosphorus-bearing species observed in molecular clouds". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor321: L81-L85. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ E. D. Tenenbaum, N. J. Woolf, L. M. Ziurys (2007). "Identification of phosphorus monoxide (X ² Pi r) in VY Canis Majoris: Detection of the first PO bond in space". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor666: L29-L32.
^ T. J. Millar, N. G. Adams, D. Smith, W. Lindinger, H. Villinger (1986). "Identification of SH v=1 Ro-vibrational Lines in R Andromedae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society221: 673-678. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ T. J. Millar, N. G. Adams, D. Smith, W. Lindinger, H. Villinger (1986). "The chemistry of SH(+) in shocked interstellar gas". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society221: 673-678. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ abc G. Pascoli, M. Comeau (1995). "Silicon Carbide in Circumstellar Environment". Astrophysics and Space Science226: -149-163.
^ Oka, Takeshi (2006). "Interstellar H3+". Procedings of the National Academy of Science103 (33): 12235-12242. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ M. Ohishi, S.-I. Ishikawa, C. Yamada, H. Kanamori, W. M. Irvine, R. D. Brown, P. D. Godfrey, N. Kaifu, H. Suzuki (1991). "Detection of a new carbon-chain molecule, CCO". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters380: L39-L42. Retrieved on 2007-02-09.
^ abcd W. M. Irvine, L. M. Ziurys, L. W. Avery, H. E. Matthews, P. Friberg (1988). "Newly detected molecules in dense interstellar clouds". Astrophysical Letters and Communications26: 167-180. Retrieved on 2007-02-09.
^ D. C. B. Whittet, H. J. Walker (1991). "On the occurrence of carbon dioxide in interstellar grain mantles and ion-molecule chemistry". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society252: 63-67. Retrieved on 2007-02-09.
^ Oka, Takeshi (2006). "Interstellar H3+". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences103 (33): 12235-12242.
^ J. M. Hollis, P. R. Jewell, F. J. Lovas (1995). "Confirmation of interstellar methylene". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1438: 259-264. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ Europe's space telescope ISO finds water in distant places. ESO (April 29, 1997). Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ L. E. Snyder, D. Buhl (1971). "First Detection of Vibrationally Excited HNC in Space". Astrophysical Journal163: L47-L52. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ ab M. S. Schenewerk, L. E. Snyder, A. Hjalmarson (1986). "Interstellar HCO - Detection of the missing 3 millimeter quartet". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor303: L71-L74. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ abcdef K. Kawaguchi, Y. Kasai, S.-I. Ishikawa, M. Ohishi, N. Kaifu, T. Amano (1994). "Detection of a new molecular ion HC3NH(+) in TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal420: L95.
^ Agúndez, M.; Cernicharo, J.; Guélin, M. (2007). "Discovery of Phosphaethyne (HCP) in Space: Phosphorus Chemistry in Circumstellar Envelopes". The Astrophysical Journal662 (2). Retrieved on 2007-06-02.
^ P. Schilke, C. Comito, S. Thorwirth (2003). "First Detection of Vibrationally Excited HNC in Space". The Astrophysical Journal582: L101–L104. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ J. M. Hollis, L. E. Snyder, L. M. Ziurys, D. McGonagle (1991). "Interstellar HNO: Confirming the Identification". Atoms, ions and molecules: New results in spectral line astrophysics16: 407-412, San Francisco: ASP. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ E.F. van Dishoeck, D.J. Jansen, P. Schilke, T. G. Phillips (1993). "Detection of the Interstellar NH 2 Radical". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters416: L83-L86. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ M. Womack, L. M. Ziurys, S. Wyckoff (1992). "A survey of N2H(+) in dense clouds - Implications for interstellar nitrogen and ion-molecule chemistry". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1387: 417-429. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ L. M. Ziurys, A. J. Apponi, J. M. Hollis, L. E. Snyder (1994). "Detection of interstellar N2O: A new molecule containing an N-O bond". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters436: L181-L184. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ P. F. Goldsmith, R. A. Linke (1981). "A study of interstellar carbonyl sulfide". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1245: 482-494. Retrieved on 2007-02-08.
^ abcdefghij L. E. B. Johansson, C. Andersson, J. Ellder, P. Friberg, A. Hjalmarson, B. Hoglund, W. M. Irvine, H. Olofsson, G. Rydbeck (1984). "Spectral scan of Orion A and IRC+10216 from 72 to 91 GHz". Astronomy and Astrophysics130 (2): 227-256.
^ M. Guélin, S. Muller, J. Cernicharo, A. J. Apponi, M. C. McCarthy, C. A. Gottlieb, P. Thaddeus (2004). "Astronomical detection of the free radical SiCN". Astronomy and Astrophysics363: L9-L12. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ M. Guélin, S. Muller, J. Cernicharo, M. C. McCarthy, P. Thaddeus (2004). "Detection of the SiNC radical in IRC+10216". Astronomy and Astrophysics426: L49-L52. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ L. E. Snyder, D. Buhl, B. Zuckerman, P. Palmer (1999). "Microwave Detection of Interstellar Formaldehyde". Physical Review Letters61 (2): 77-115. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.
^ ab W. M. Irvine, P. Friberg, Å. Hjalmarson, L. E. B. Johansson, P. Thaddeus, R. D. Brown, P. D. Godfrey (1984). "Confirmation of the Existence of Two New Interstellar Molecules: C3H and C3O". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society16: 877. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ J. G. Mangum, A. Wootten (1990). "Observations of the cyclic C3H radical in the interstellar medium". Astronomy and Astrophysics239: 319-325. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ M. B. Bell, H. E. Matthews (1995). "Detection of C3N in the spiral arm gas clouds in the direction of Cassiopeia A". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1438: 223-225. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ A. Wootten, B. E. Turner, J. G. Mangum, M. Bogey, F. Boulanger, F. Combes, P. J. Encrenaz, M. Gerin (1991). "Detection of interstellar H3O(+) - A confirming line". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters380: L79-L83. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ abc Betz, A. L. (1981). "Ethylene in IRC +10216". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor244: -L105.
^ M. Ohishi, D. McGonagle, W.M. Irvine, S. Yamamoto, S. Saito (1994). "Detection of a new interstellar molecule, H2CN". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters427: L51-L54. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ S. Aiello, L. Morbidelli, L. Ulivi (1981). "Far UV radiation transfer and H2CO lifetime in dense interstellar clouds". Astrophysics and Space Science80: 173-187. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ Y. C. Minh, W. M. Irvine, M. K. Brewer (1991). "H2CS abundances and ortho-to-para ratios in interstellar clouds". Astronomy and Astrophysics244: 181-189. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ M. Guelin, J. Cernicharo (1991). "Astronomical detection of the HCCN radical - Toward a new family of carbon-chain molecules?". Astronomy and Astrophysics244: L21-L24. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ Y. C. Minh, W. M. Irvine, L. M. Ziurys (1988). "Observations of interstellar HOCO(+) - Abundance enhancements toward the Galactic center". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1334: 175-181. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ M. A. Frerking, R. A. Linke, P. Thaddeus (1979). "Interstellar isothiocyanic acid". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor234: L143-L145. Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ ab Nguyen-Q-Rieu, D. Graham, V. Bujarrabal (1984). "Ammonia and cyanotriacetylene in the envelopes of CRL 2688 and IRC + 10216". Astronomy and Astrophysics138 (1): L5-L8.
^ A. L. Butterworth,O. Aballain, J. Chappellaz, M. A. Sephton (2004). "Combined element (H and C) stable isotope ratios of methane in carbonaceous chondrites". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society347 (3): 807-812. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.
^ J. H. Lacy, J. S. Carr, N. J. Evans, II, F. Baas, J. M. Achtermann, J. F. Arens (1991). "Discovery of interstellar methane - Observations of gaseous and solid CH4 absorption toward young stars in molecular clouds". Astrophysical Journal376: 556-560.
^ abcdefg Finley, Dave (August 7, 2006). Researchers Use NRAO Telescope to Study Formation Of Chemical Precursors to Life. National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved on 2006-08-10.
^ abcdefg D. Fossé, J. Cernicharo, M. Gerin, P. Cox (2001). "Molecular Carbon Chains and Rings in TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal552: 168–174. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ W. M. Irvine, P. Friberg, A. Hjalmarson, S. Ishikawa, N. Kaifu, K. Kawaguchi, S. C. Madden, H. E. Matthews, M. Ohishi, S. Saito, H. Suzuki, P. Thaddeus, B. E. Turner, S. Yamamoto, L. M. Ziurys (1988). "Identification of the interstellar cyanomethyl radical (CH2CN) in the molecular clouds TMC-1 and Sagittarius B2". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters334: L107-L111. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ J. E. Dickens, W. M. Irvine, C. H. De Vries, M. Ohishi (1997). "Hydrogenation of Interstellar Molecules: A Survey for Methylenimine (CH 2NH)". Astrophysical Journal479: 307. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ M. Ohishi, S.-I. Ishikawa, T. Amano, H. Oka, W.M. Irvine, J. E. Dickens, L. M. Ziurys, A. J. Apponi (1996). "Detection of a New Interstellar Molecular Ion, H 2COH + (Protonated Formaldehyde)". Astrophysical Journal471: L61. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
^ Cernicharo, J.; Guélin, M.; Agündez, M.; Kawaguchi, K.; McCarthy, M.; Thaddeus, P. (2007). "Astronomical detection of C4H, the second interstellar anion". Astronomy and Astrophysics61 (2): L37-L40. Retrieved on 2007-06-02.
^ ab C. M. Walmsley, G. Winnewisser, F. Toelle (1990). "Cyanoacetylene and cyanodiacetylene in interstellar clouds". Astronomy and Astrophysics81 (1-2): 245-250.
^ K. Kawaguchi, M. Ohishi,S.-I. Ishikawa, N. Kaifu (1992). "Detection of isocyanoacetylene HCCNC in TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal386 (2): L51-L53.
^ B. E. Turner, H. S. Liszt, N. Kaifu, A. G. Kisliakov (1975). "Microwave detection of interstellar cyanamide". Astrophysical Journal201: L149-L152.
^ D. M. Goldhaber, A. L. Betz (1984). "Silane in IRC +10216". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor279: -L55-L58.
^ abc J. M. Hollis, F. J. Lovas, A. J. Remijan, P. R. Jewell, V. V. Ilyushin, ;I. Kleiner (2006). "Detection of Acetamide (CH3CONH2): The Largest Interstellar Molecule with a Peptide Bond". Astrophysical Journal643 (1): L25-L28.
^ J. M. Hollis, A. J. Remijan, P. R. Jewell, F. J. Lovas (2006). "Cyclopropenone (c-H2C3O): A New Interstellar Ring Molecule". Astrophysical Journal642: 933-939.
^ abcde A. J. Remijan, J. M. Hollis, F. J. Lovas, D. F. Plusquellic, P. R. Jewell (2005). "Interstellar Isomers: The Importance of Bonding Energy Differences". Astrophysical Journal632: 333–339.
^ D. L. Lambert, Y. Sheffer, S. R. Federman (1979). "Interstellar methyl mercaptan". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor234: L139-L142.
^ abc J. Cernicharo, A. M. Heras, A. G. G. M. Tielens, J. R. Pardo, F. Herpin, M. Guélin, L. B. F. M. Waters (1997). "Infrared Space Observatory's Discovery of C4H2, C6H2, and Benzene in CRL 618". Astrophysical Journal546 (2): L123–L126.
^ W. M. Irvine, R. D. Brown, D. M. Cragg, P. Friberg, P. D. Godfrey, N. Kaifu, H. E. Matthews, M. Ohishi, H. Suzuki, H. Takeo (1988). "A new interstellar polyatomic molecule - Detection of propynal in the cold cloud TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters335: L89-L93.
^ ab "Scientists Toast the Discovery of Vinyl Alcohol in Interstellar Space", National Radio Astronomy Observatory, October 1, 2001. Retrieved on 2006-12-20.
^ ab J. E. Dickens, W. M. Irvine, M. Ohishi, M. Ikeda, S. Ishikawa, A. Nummelin, A. Hjalmarson (1997). "A New Interstellar Cyclic Molecule, Ethylene Oxide". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society29: 1245.
^ N. Kaifu, K. Takagi, T. Kojima (1975). "Excitation of interstellar methylamine". Astrophysical Journal198: L85-L88.
^ M. C. McCarthy, C. A. Gottlieb, H. Gupta, P. Thaddeus (2006). "Laboratory and Astronomical Identification of the Negative Molecular Ion C6H-". Astrophysical Journal652 (2): L141-L144.
^ ab F. J. Lovas, Anthony J. Remijan, J. M. Hollis, P. R. Jewell, L. E. Snyder (2006). "Hyperfine Structure Identification of Interstellar Cyanoallene toward TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal637 (2): L37–L40.
^ ab Sincell, Mark (June 27, 2006). The Sweet Signal of Sugar in Space. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved on 2006-12-20.
^ ab D. M. Mehringer, L. E. Snyder, Y. Miao, F. J. Lovas (1997). "Detection and Confirmation of Interstellar Acetic Acid". Astrophysical Journal Letters480: L71. Retrieved on 2007-02-16.
^ M. Guelin, J. Cernicharo, M. J. Travers, M. C. McCarthy, C. A. Gottlieb, P. Thaddeus, M. Ohishi, S. Saito, S. Yamamoto (1997). "Detection of a new linear carbon chain radical: C7H.". Astronomy and Astrophysics317: L37-L40.
^ ab A. J. Remijan, J. M. Hollis, L. E. Snyder, P. R. Jewell, F. J. Lovas (2006). "Methyltriacetylene (CH3C6H) toward TMC-1: The Largest Detected Symmetric Top". Astrophysical Journal643 (1): L37-L40.
^ Z. Peeters, S. D. Rodgers, S. B. Charnley, L. Schriver-Mazzuoli, A. Schriver, J. V. Keane, P. Ehrenfreund (2006). "Astrochemistry of dimethyl ether". Astronomy and Astrophysics445 (1): 197-204.
^ B. Zuckerman, B. E. Turner, D. R. Johnson, F. J. Lovas, N. Fourikis, P. Palmer, M. Morris, A. E. Lilley, J. A. Ball, F. O. Clark (1975). "Detection of interstellar trans-ethyl alcohol". Astrophysical Journal196 (2): L99-L102.
^ J. Cernicharo, M. Guelin (1996). "Discovery of the C8H radical.". Astronomy and Astrophysics309: L26-L30.
^ H. Brünken, H. Gupta, C. A. Gottlieb, M. C. McCarthy, P. Thaddeus (2007). "Detection of the Carbon Chain Negative Ion C8H– in TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal664 (1): L43-L46.
^ A. J. Remijan, J. M. Hollis, F. J. Lovas, M. A. Cordiner, T. J. Millar, A. J. Markwick-Kemper, P. R. Jewell (2007). "Detection of C8H– and Comparison with C8H toward IRC +10 216". Astrophysical Journal664 (1): L47-L50.
^ H. W. Kroto, C. Kirby, D. R. M. Walton, L. W. Avery, N. W. Broten, J. M. MacLeod, T. Oka (2002). "The detection of cyanohexatriyne in Heiles's cloud 2". The Astrophysical Journal219: L133-L137.
^ abc M. B. Bell, P. A. Feldman, M. J. Travers, M. C. McCarthy, C. A. Gottlieb, P. Thaddeus (1997). "Detection of HC11N in the Cold Dust Cloud TMC-1". Astrophysical Journal483 (2): L61–L64.
^ N. Marcelino, J. Cernicharo, M. Agúndez, E. Roueff, M. Gerin, J. Martín-Pintado,
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^ L. E. Snyder, F. J. Lovas, D. M. Mehringer, N. Y. Miao, Y.-J. Kuan, J. M. Hollis, P. R. Jewell (2002). "Confirmation of Interstellar Acetone". The Astrophysical Journal578 (1): 245–255.
^ G. W. Fuchs, U. Fuchs, T. F. Giesen, F. Wyrowski (2005). "Trans-ethyl methyl ether in space. A new look at a complex molecule in selected hot core regions". Astronomy and Astrophysics444 (2): 521-530.
^ S. Lacour, M. K. André, P. Sonnentrucker, F. Le Petit, D. E. Welty, J.-M. Desert, R. Ferlet, E. Roueff, D. G. York (2005). "Deuterated molecular hydrogen in the Galactic ISM. New observations along seven translucent sightlines". Astronomy and Astrophysics430: 967-977.
^ abc Ceccarelli, Cecilia (2002). "Millimeter and infrared observations of deuterated molecules". Planetary and Space Science50 (12-13): 1267-1273.
^ H. M. Butner, S. B. Charnley, C. Ceccarelli, S. D. Rodgers, J. R. Pardo, B. Parise, J. Cernicharo, G. R. Davies (2007). "Discovery of interstellar heavy water". Astrophysical Journal659: L137-L140.
^ abcd B. E. Turner, B. Zuckerman (1978). "Observations of strongly deuterated molecules - Implications for interstellar chemistry". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor225: L75-L79. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ D. C. Lis, E. Roueff, M. Gerin, T. G. Phillips, L. H. Coudert, F. F. S. van der Tak, P. Schilke (/2002). "Detection of Triply Deuterated Ammonia in the Barnard 1 Cloud". Astrophysical Journal571 (1): L55-L58.
^ J. Hatchell (/2003). "High NH2D/NH3 ratios in protostellar cores". Astronomy and Astrophysics403: L25-L28.
^ Turner, B. E. (1990). "Detection of doubly deuterated interstellar formaldehyde (D2CO) - an indicator of active grain surface chemistry". Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters362: L29-L33. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
^ M. Gerin, F. Combes, G. Wlodarczak, P. Encrenaz, C. Laurent (1992). "Interstellar detection of deuterated methyl acetylene". Astronomy and Astrophysics253 (2): L29-L32. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ A. J. Markwick, S. B. Charnley, H. M. Butner, T. J. Millar (2005). "Interstellar CH3CCD". The Astrophysical Journal627 (2): L117-L120. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ Y. J. Kuan, S.B. Charnley, H.-C. Huang, W.-L. Tseng, Z. Kisiel (2003). "Interstellar Glycine". Astrophysical Journal593 (2): 848-867.
^ L. E. Snyder, F. J. Lovas, J. M. Hollis, D. N. Friedel, P. R. Jewell, A. Remijan, V. V. Ilyushin, E. A. Alekseev, S. F. Dyubko (2005). "A Rigorous Attempt to Verify Interstellar Glycine". Astrophysical Journal619 (2): 914-930.
^ S. L. Widicus Weaver, G. A. Blake (2005). "1,3-Dihydroxyacetone in Sagittarius B2(N-LMH): The First Interstellar Ketose". Astrophysical Journal624 (2): L33–L36.